In as much as men are not physically perfect, probably even if they were born perfect, the experiences of everyday life are bound to cripple them, to reveal hidden weaknesses. The problem of society is to minimize these bad results and to limit their effects in so far as possible to the individual. Biology knows nothing of any progressive degeneration of the race stock coming through social policies, but it often sees men needlessly weakened both by bad habits and bad social conditions. Bad Morals The onus of the complaint against civilization rests, then, upon the second charge, the development of bad morals, both the individual "habits that handicap" and bad social selection. In other chapters it is shown that the development of wise social choices is the chief concern of society. Of course it is foolish to save the lives of degenerates and then allow them to procreate offspring for whom they can provide neither adequate support nor training and to whom often they cannot bequeath adequate brains. To save the individual and ruin society is but a slow method of suicide. Just how this riddle is to be solved we have not ventured to suggest. Nor have we discussed methods for securing a higher birth rate among those fitted to become ancestors. It seems clear that much of the thinking and discussion of these matters has been confused. Often it has started from unsound biological assumptions and has sought to find a biological remedy where the solution appears to lie in the development of social standards and ideals. New conditions of life demand new customs if trouble is to be avoided. REFERENCES 1. H. Drummond, The Ascent of Man, Chap. iii. 2. T. OLIVER, Occupations, p. 78. 3. "Infant Mortality and Employed Mothers," J. Am. M. Ass. (1923), Vol. 80, No. 13, p. 948. 4. R. M. MACIVER, in Population Problems, edited by L. I. Dub lin, p. 299. 5. W. SCHALLMAYER, Vererbung und Auslese (4th ed.), pp. 200ff. 6. R. M. MACIVER, op. cit., p. 300. 7. Ibid., p. 302. 8. W. SCHALLMAYER, op. cit., p. 202. 9. A. J. LOTKA, "Size of American Family in the XVIII Cen tury," Quart. Pub. Am. Statist. Ass., June, 1927. 10. P. POPENOE and R. H. JOHNSON, Applied Eugenics. See this volume for detailed discussion of topic. II. Ibid., p. 269. 12. J. BERTILLON, cited by CHATTERTON-HILL, Heredity and Selection in Sociology, p. 325. 13. J. A. HILL, Quart. Pub. Am. Statist. Ass., Dec. 1913, pp. 583-604. 14. A. O'MALLEY, The Cure of Alcoholism, p. 97. 15. P. POPENOE, The Conservation of the Family, pp. 113-124. 16. J. MCK. CATTELL, Independent, Sept. 27, 1915. 17. A. REIBMAYER, Inzucht und Vermischung, pp. 261ff. 18. W. SCHALLMAYER, op. cit., p. 427. 19. Op. cit., p. 10б. 20. M. F. GUYER, Being Well-Born (2d. ed.), p. 366. 21. Life Extension Institute, Bulletin, Sept., 1925. 22. E. L. FISK, Med. Times, N. Y., June, 1923. CHAPTER XVI SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS The ancients who wished to illustrate illustrious virtue throughout the Empire, first ordered well their own States. Wishing to order well their own States, they first regulated their families. Wishing to regulate their families, they first cultivated their persons. Wishing to cultivate their persons, they first rectified their hearts. Wishing to rectify their hearts, they first sought to be sincere in their thoughts. Wishing to be sincere in their thoughts, they first extended to the utmost their knowledge. Such extension of knowledge lay in the investigation of things. Things being investigated, knowledge became com- It cannot be, when the root is neglected, that what What Society Is The secret of man's success in dominating other forms of life and in gaining control of the natural environment lies quite as much in the fact that he is one of the social animals as in his intellectual equipment. The latter alone would be wholly inadequate. It is society which enables man to utilize the discoveries made by individuals. The concept society involves much more than a mass of individuals who collectively comprise the population. While the individual is the unit of population it is the relation between individuals which is essential to society. Society exists, as MacIver says, "wherever individuals maintain willed-relations to one another." Furthermore it is evident that these "willedrelations" cannot be antagonistic. No society could exist where men always opposed and fought each other. Coöperation for common ends is requisite. We need not stop to survey the little we know of early times nor to debate the extent to which this coöperation has a conscious base rather than one of emotion; both elements are present. We are forced to assume that the character of an individual is the resultant of the development of natural, inherited qualities under the influence of the world about him, social as well as physical. In as much as no two persons are just alike, and since the environment of no two persons can be identical, it must follow that differences will arise in the wants, ideals and judgments of men. Hence, society always faces the necessity of developing standards to avoid the evil effects of the clash of interests that would otherwise arise. Throughout the ages moral education has been at least as important as the acquisition of facts which is so emphasized to-day. Group Standards But mankind does not function as one great group. The average man is a member of some local group, often small in numbers and isolated from larger groups. The result is not only the development of peculiar local customs but the establishment of a group morality which, in time, may be elevated into a system of ethics and attributed to some deity. As a rule the group is satisfied if it secures uniformity of conduct on the part of its members. More rarely the |