died.63 We must remember that, "In barbarian and savage communities the collective regulation of life is not less but greater than it is in the civilized state. The bounds that may be overstepped are narrow and dread. Immemorial custom is inflexible, and half of all the possible joys of existence are forbidden and taboo. By the conscious coöperation of elders in directing the rearing of children by young parents, by organized initiation ceremonies, by clan and tribal councils, each new generation is remorselessly trained in those beliefs, habits and loyalties which the group regards as vital to its existence."64 Thus beneficial innovation in means of production is as likely as not to go contrary to some tribal usage, and hence be repressed because, being new and better, it might offend the spirit associated with the customary way. Another hindrance to the development of production must be mentioned. It should be remembered that among primitive people agricultural and industrial activities are usually carried on by the women of the community.65 The woman of the family was the food bringer, the weaver, the skin dresser, the potter, the beast of burden, and the "Jack-of-all-trades." The ablebodied men went on the chase, or went to war. Only the old and decrepit, the weaklings and the sickly men were left at home to stay with the women. These despised individuals fell into the productive activities of the women, weaving, dressing skins, pottery and other occupations requiring a sedentary mode of life. These occupations therefore, became associated with the weaker 63 Ratzel, Anthropogeography, vol. ii, p. 699. 64 Giddings, "Social Self-Control," Pol. Sci. Quart., vol. xxiv. no. 4, 1909. 65 Mason, O. T.-Woman's Share in Primitive Culture, 1894. and despised members of society. It was only another step to regard as contemptible all productive occupations because only weaklings and women followed them. Consequently the proper thing for the strong adult man was the life of battle and hunting; routine and drudgery were to be left to all who had not sufficient strength to follow the more noble callings. In the presence of these hindrances to improvements in the means of production, the development of an industrial society was of necessity slow and arduous. With taboos upon the doing of certain acts, with popular prejudice against industrial and agricultural occupations, the time when the community could habitually produce a surplus of goods over and above the actual needs of its members was necessarily far distant. The creation of more commodities than could be directly consumed was naturally dependent upon the existence of a fertile soil and a good water supply, but aside from this there must be a class in the community who labored constantly and persistently at the despised productive occupations. By the introduction of slavery on a somewhat large and systematic scale, this requisite was satisfied. Since warriors and hunters scorned industrial labor, slaves were forced to work in the fields and houses. The institution of slavery taught mankind the habit of steady labor and proved a good school-master for men who had avoided hard persistent work. The defeated were forced into it and learned to submit to it. Thus slavery was one part of the discipline by which the human race has learned to carry on industrial organization.66 66 Seligman, op. cit., p. 156. SUPPLEMENTARY READINGS. BOAS, F.-The Mind of Primitive Man. BOAS, F.-The Social Organization and Secret Societies of the Kwakiutl Indians. BÜCHER, Carl.-Industrial Evolution. REPORTS,―Bureau of American Ethnology. FRAZER, J. G.-The Golden Bough. FRAZER, J. G.-Totemism. GIDDINGS, F. H.-The Principles of Sociology. HOWITT, A. W.-The Native Tribes of Southeast Australia. JONES, W.-"The Algonkin Manitou," Jour. Amer. Folk-Lore, vol. xviii. MCLENNAN, J. F.-Studies in Ancient History. MCLENNAN, J. F.-The Patriarchal Theory. MASON, O. T.-Woman's Share in Primitive Culture. MORGAN, L. H.-Ancient Society. SPENCER, B., and GILLEN, F. J.,-The Native Tribes of Central Australia. SPENCER, B., and GILLEN, F. J.,-The Northern Tribes of Central Australia. THOMAS, W. I.-Source Book for Social Origins. TYLOR, E. B.-Anthropology. TYLOR, E. B.-Primitive Culture, 2 vols. IX THE TRANSITION FROM TRIBAL SOCIETY MANKIND did not make the change from primitive society, organized on the basis of blood relationship, to civil society where the bond of union is mutual toleration and coöperative interest, in any sudden and complete manner. The transition period was a long and an important one. Many factors and numerous influences were at work undermining and breaking down the old structure of society. Although the beginnings of this change belong to a more or less remote prehistoric period, the later stages of the transition have been recorded in a most interesting manner in the early literature and laws of historic peoples. Ancient Greek literature, early Irish, Welsh, and Saxon laws, contain numerous references to a structure of society which was neither tribal nor yet properly civil, but presented rather the characteristics of a transition form. We must not consider that this change took place at the same time all over the world among those peoples which are now civilized, for there is indication that different races attained civilization at different periods. Nor must we expect to find that the transition was always made in accordance with the same process of change. Sometimes one factor was most important, at other times or among differently situated peoples some previously neglected influence became a dominant force. Thus the problem is one of exceeding complexity and all we can hope to do is to study 278 a few of the most important influences which have been at work in combining to produce civilization. The germ of a civil state appears when several tribes unite and form a confederation for purposes of mutual protection. We saw that the Iroquois confederacy was, in many respects, like a true civil state. Yet this remarkable organization was really not advanced beyond the stage of ethnic society because it was composed of tribes of Indians who traced descent through the mother line. The change from metronymic to patronymic organization seems to have been essential in the early history of many peoples for the final great transition to civil society. This change appears to have occurred at any stage in social evolution. A patriarchal organization had been already attained by most historic peoples when their earliest known literature was written; in consequence, even down to the middle of the nineteenth century, traditions of earlier metronymic organization had passed from men's minds.1 In passing from metronymic to patronymic organization, society was deeply influenced by the economic struggle for foods. In this period human savagery had full expression. There were ruthless wars of extermination and surplus population within the group was put to death. Social regulations placed a ban upon the marriage of young men, resulting in polyandry and in polygamy among the older and powerful chiefs.a 2 3 1 Dealey, J. Q.-The Family in its Sociological Aspects, 1912, p. 27, see also Howard's Matrimonial Institutions, Morgan's Ancient Society, Fustel de Coulanges' Ancient City, Robertson Smith's Kinship and Marriage of Early Arabia, Louis Wallis' Sociological Study of the Bible, Keller's Homeric Society, Gummere's Germanic Origins, and Hearn's Aryan Household. 2 A marriage system in which a woman has several husbands. 3 A marriage system in which a man has several wives. 4 Dealey, op. cit., p. 23. |