knowledge, belief, and custom to be acquired or assimilated. Whereas animal species have advanced from lower to higher levels of mental life by the improvement of the innate mental constitution of the species, man, since he became man, has progressed in the main by means of the increase in volume and improvement in quality of the sum of knowledge, belief, and custom, which constitutes the tradition of any society. And it is to the superiority of the moral and intellectual tradition of his society that the superiority of civilized man over existing savages and over his savage forefathers is chiefly, if not wholly, due. This increase and improvement of tradition has been effected by countless steps, each relatively small and unimportant, initiated by the few original minds of the successive generations and incorporated in the social tradition through the acceptance or imitation of them by the mass of men. All that constitutes culture and civilization, all, or nearly all, that distinguishes the highly cultured European intellectually and morally from the men of the stone age of Europe, is then summed up in the word 'tradition,' and all tradition exists only in virtue of imitation; for it is only by imitation that each generation takes up and makes its own the tradition of the preceding generation; and is only by imitation that any improvement, conceived by any mind endowed with that rarest of all things, a spark of originality, can become embodied within the tradition of his society." 55 SUPPLEMENTARY READINGS. BOAS, F.-The Mind of Primitive Man. 55 McDougall, op. cit., pp. 327-328. GIDDINGS, F. H.-Descriptive and Historical Sociology. 'GIDDINGS, F. H.-Democracy and Empire. GUMPLOWICZ, L.-The Outlines of Sociology. LE BON, G.-The Crowd. MCDOUGALL, W.-An Introduction to Social Psychology. Ross, E. A.-Social Control. SUMNER, W. G.-Folkways. TARDE, G.-The Laws of Imitation. VII RACES AND PEOPLES IN the thousands of years that elapsed before the his torical period began, that continuing tendency to vary which had already differentiated the animal kingdom into genera and species, was operating to differentiate mankind into varieties or races.1 Associated in groups, the early men of the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods, moving from one territory to another under the pressure of environmental changes, met and conquered or else intermarried with other primitive racial groups. From this process of association, intermixture, and adaptation to the necessities of climate and geographic environment, certain characteristics emerged as stable physical peculiarities of large populations. To-day we distinguish a yellow-skinned straight-haired race, a black-skinned woolly-haired race, and a fair-skinned curly-haired race. But before we can identify any population group as a true race we must show that certain traits or stable physical characters which it possesses are distributed separately, are associated into types, and finally, we must show the hereditary character of these types. For example, in the first place, we must show that such a trait as blondness is diffused among large numbers of a population; in the second place, that blondness is more often associated with tall stature than with short stature, thus 1 Giddings, Principles, p. 230. 2 Ripley, W. Z.-The Races of Europe, pp. 104-105. 3 FIGURE 64. Diagram illustrating Facial Angle, Head Form and Hair Form. Upper cuts: A, prognathic jaws; B, orthognathic jaws. Middle cuts: A, dolichocephalic or long skull, in which width is about 75 per cent. of length; B, brachycephalic or round skull, in which width is about 85 per cent. of length. Lower cuts: A, elliptical cross-section of the woolly, frizzly or kinky type of hair; B, slightly elliptical cross-section of the curly or wavy type of hair; C, cylindrical cross-section of lank or straight type of hair. giving us a tall blond type; and in the third place, we must show that this type of tallness and blondness when characteristic of parents is inherited by their children. The Chinese are a true race in accordance with these distinctions because such characters as round head, straight hair, yellow skin and almond eyes are usually found to be the combination of traits which the average Chinaman possesses, moreover, the children of the average Chinaman also possess these traits. The problem of the origin of races is well-nigh impossible of solution because the facts relating to the gradual differentiation of racial traits are lost in the darkness of prehistoric ages. When history began, men found themselves already possessed of those characteristics of skin color, hair form, and head shape, which serve as the marks of race. We must base our explanation of this process largely upon carefully framed scientific theory. In the present stage of our knowledge of this complex problem, the following factors must be considered in any theory of race origins. The most highly developed extinct anthropoid apes have been found in fossil remains in Europe. The Pithecanthropus was found in Java. The Neanderthal skull and the Heidelberg jaw were found in the valley of the Rhine. Of living men, the lowest in culture and brain capacity, are found in Australia, Tasmania, and Africa. Of these lowest types of surviving men, some are dolichocephalic 3 (long-headed) and others are brachycephalic (round-headed). The great area of distribution the dolichocephalic, prognathic3 (marked projection of upper and lower jaws beyond the line of the face), woolly, frizzly or kinky-haired, black men, is south of the equator-in Australia and 3 See figure 64, 3 |