implements and his monuments or works of art. But we must remember that the earliest men left no archeological remains; indeed, "They had not advanced beyond the use of sticks and unchipped stones. . . . If no paleolithic remains earlier than the late quaternary period are found, it does not follow that man did not exist until the late quaternary. On the contrary, it is certain that, if flints were then chipped by men, earlier men had lived, who had not thought of chipping flints." 29 The implements form a valuable part of our evidence. because they are most numerous and widespread and occur under conditions which afford the best proof of their antiquity. When we find chipped stone implements buried beneath the drift and undisturbed boulder clay which some glacier gouged out of the valley wall and piled up hundreds of thousands of years ago, we must regard the age of the glacial deposit as a measure of the age of the stone implements. Or, if an excavation in the floor of some ancient cave uncovers humanly fashioned stone tools under a thick stalagmite formation, we can only regard the undisturbed position of the implements as an indication of extreme age. Many primitive peoples to-day live upon shell-fish and leave the discarded shells near their dwellings. As time goes on the pile of shells accumulates. We call such heaps of shells, "Kitchen-Middens." If now we find under such kitchen-middens among the shells, rude unpolished spear heads, these implements must be at least as old as the accumulation. In Tierra del Fuego (Elizabeth Island), there are kitchen-middens upon old beaches raised to considerable heights above the present sea-level, so ancient that the shells of which they are composed are ex

tinct, or no longer the same as those in the surrounding waters.30 But while the position in or under the drift which some glacier or glacial river has transported and finally deposited in ever accumulating layers constitutes

From Birkner, "Der Diluviale Mensch in Europa."

FIGURE 26. Diagram of Cro-Magnon Grotto, where Remains of Pre-
historic Men were found.

quite conclusive evidence, the position under stalagmite beds and kitchen-middens does not furnish as reliable proof of antiquity. The growth of stalagmite beds is irregular and depends upon conditions which are subject to some variation. In the case of the kitchen-midden, some shells are accumulated with great rapidity so that in a comparatively short time a considerable pile

is made. With these warnings in mind we may proceed to the study of prehistoric man's tools.

FIGURE 27. Stone Implements of the early Paleolithic Period,
Strépyan and Chellean.

Mr. Marett tells of a cave in Jersey, near the bay of St. Brelade, where anthropologists dug down through some twenty feet of clay and rock rubbish, probably carried there in the course of the last ice age by some glacial torrent, and discovered a prehistoric hearth with the large stones that had propped up the fire, and even some ashes. Bones were found in a heap of food-refuse,

which when examined proved to be the remains of the woolly rhinoceros, the reindeer, of two kinds of horses, of a wild ox, and of a deer. Thirteen human teeth were found in the food-heap. But Mr. Marett was unable to tell whether man or beast did the eating. These teeth

From Forrer, Urgeschichte des Europäers."

FIGURE 28. Flint Implements of the Chellean Epoch.

were large, the kind that would go with an immensely powerful jaw, needing a massive brow-ridge to counteract the strain of the bite-in general the Neanderthal type, large brained perhaps, yet quite ape-like. The diners had also left their knives about,-flint implements chipped only on one side.31

The chipped flint implements of prehistoric man differ in such a way that we are able to recognize several stages 31 Marett, R. R.-Anthropology, in The Home University Library, H. Holt & Co., 1912, p. 37.

in their development and even to assign the approximate years during which each was in vogue. The rough

FIGURE 29. Flint Implements of the Acheulian Epoch. stone age and the polished stone age are the popular terms for the stages showing the most striking differences in appearance and workmanship. In figure 14 the most recent geologic epoch, the Quaternary, is divided into the lower, middle, and upper Quaternary, covering a period of some 750,000 years. It will be noticed that