that becomes conscious of a final code held as an ideal and often not applicable under present conditions. The moral man then is he who does as the group standards dictate. Added esteem may sometimes be won by doing more than is demanded, never by doing less.

Every child born enters into a world of customs, institutions and ideals which is as real as the physical world itself. If he is to survive and ultimately play his part as a man among men, his adaptation to his social environment must be quite as real and thorough as that to the natural environment. Inasmuch as his social equipment at birth is almost nothing, this means that a long period of training is necessary ere he be fitted to stand by himself.

The human being has an exceptionally long infancy. The average life of an animal is about seven times the period of immaturity. If this were true of man his average age at death would be 120 instead of 40 or thereabouts. This long childhood means, as compared with other animals, a peculiarly close and intimate relationship with the mother, a very slow maturing of the tissues of the body, and above all else, so far as can be seen, an opportunity for that necessary social training on which so much depends. Man must be further developed than other animals ere he can be independent, and civilized man must have more training than the average ere he starts out for himself. The Indian boy of 12 probably knew more of the necessary facts, was better skilled in the necessary arts of life, and stood a better chance of survival if thrown on his own resources than any American boy of 15 or 18. That is to say, the former's training was more complete, which also means that the later developments were far less than is possible now for the American boy. Early maturity means relatively a low grade of accomplishment. In

those callings requiring an exceptional degree of intellectual development the European or American youth of today must be supported by his parents until he is 25 or 30 and even then his own development is far from complete. The mere preparation of a child to lead the "higher life is an extremely difficult and expensive process, involving endless opportunities for serious and costly mistakes in method, with the possibility of having attempted to make a gander into a swan after all. Disregarding the blunders of judgment, it is clear that only those to whom come the greatest opportunities of training can ever do the most difficult tasks of society.

In addition to the purely personal relationships of parents, children, friends and associates, each child enters a world in which public opinion in many ways has been more or less formally organized. These social institutions are the agencies by which man standardizes and regulates: (a) his adaptation to the physical world; (b) his attainment and use of wealth; (c) his relations to fellow men; (d) his relations to the gods.

Their basis and justification lie in the needs of man, primarily in the great needs of (a) self-preservation and (b) group-preservation or reproduction. Their great merit lies in the fact that in a real sense they represent the collective judgment of the group which is likely to be wiser than that of the individual, particularly the young individual whose outlook on the world is still narrow. "Experience," said Franklin, "keeps a dear school, but fools will learn in no other."

All institutions involve, either directly or indirectly, some constraint over the actions of the individual. The desired conformity to standard may be brought about by the use of force if necessary, as by the state, but more

likely is secured by the mere fact that the average person imitates the habits and customs of his associates. The fear of ridicule, of seeming to be queer makes the use of force unnecessary in the main. In most regards then the average individual conforms to custom because it is easier than non-conforming.

The four great ends of social institutions may now be considered a bit more in detail. As we have seen, life without adaptation to the physical world is unthinkable. We may then consider this as a purely personal question, but it has social aspects as well. Clothing is designed to protect the body but in organized society the wearing of clothing is not wholly left to the wishes of the individual. Out of the habit of wearing clothes arose the ideas of modesty as to the display of the body. Hence social conventions, differing most instructively and amusingly from place to place on earth, require the covering of this or that portion of the body and sharply penalize the one who disregards the edict. In our country the face is not ordinarily covered, but in Mohammedan lands the woman who uncovers her face is considered most immodest. In addition to requiring some clothing, the particular articles to be worn are not wholly decided by the individual. The girl who dresses in boy's clothing is very likely to be arrested. He is a very ignorant or a very bold, confident individual who wears a red necktie when evening dress is expected.

Food may seem to be a personal matter, but it is not. That which may be eaten is largely a matter of custom. Cannibalism has largely disappeared from earth and even in dire emergencies I suppose most civilized persons would starve rather than eat human flesh. We eat crabs and lobsters, but draw the line on cats and dogs. Moreover,

the manner, time and place of eating are pretty carefully regulated by customs which few disregard.

Our bodies, like our clothes, must be washed whether they need it or not, if we are to keep our standing in society. Our houses too are more or less regulated by law and custom.

That these standards have certain great advantages in spite of the amusement they may afford is plainly evident. Just now we are concerned with the fact rather than with the attempt to justify or condemn the results.

One great prerequisite of civilization is wealth. So long as man had to use all energy and time in securing the bare necessities of physical life there was no chance for progress. Whenever and wherever it was possible for him to have a surplus beyond the moment's needs he had a chance to devise ways and means for keeping ahead and to use articles or materials previously unavailable. Now all wealth is produced by the application of man's talents to the reshaping or relocating of natural objects, that is by work. If greater wealth is to be created, his efforts must be more wisely or productively used. If increased efforts either of mind or body are to be secured, greater incentives must be found. Probably the greatest incentive yet devised is private property. There can be no doubt that this like all other institutions was of slow gradual growth. It must have originated in the peculiarly personal objects such as clothing or weapons made by the individual for his own use. Ultimately the idea was extended until it embraced the ownership of the earth itself and included the right to give, sell or transmit by inheritance that which had been accumulated, to others. Yet in all ages society has sought, not always successfully, to

control the method of acquiring property, its use, its disposition.

Even before the existence of private property there was the need of regulating the relations of man to man. The emotions of friendship or of anger might easily lead to results either good or bad from the standpoint of the group. Hence all history teems with illustrations of the attempt of society to secure the acceptance of standards of conduct with reference to others, that the individual and the group might be protected and peace and welfare secured.

It has also been believed that we were surrounded by invisible hosts of beings, of indefinite and perhaps infinite power, both good and bad, whose opportunities for influencing our lives were endless. Hence man's attitude towards these unseen spirits and the effect of his actions upon them have been matters of deep public concern. In no part of our life has there been greater effort than to secure that uniform attitude of respect and worship, of trust and belief considered desirable. Moreover this attempt has been, in the main, wonderfully successful. To such an extent has this effort been carried that not only the outward acts of man have been examined but his mind searched to make sure that his ideas and beliefs were in accord with the accepted standards.

Into this social world, then, man is born and to its decrees he must in the main submit. There is a lot of loose, careless talk today of personal rights, by which expression is meant not the privileges granted to the individual by society but rights that are his because he is. One might as well say that black is white. Rights come from society, are determined wisely or unwisely by society; and to speak of individual rights as other than these